Air Transport and the Environment Towards meeting the Challenges of Sustainable Development
COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES
Brussels, 1.12.1999
COM (1999) 640 final
COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN
PARLIAMENT, THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE
REGIONS
Air Transport and the Environment Towards meeting the Challenges of
Sustainable Development
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
i) Air transport is a growth industry. This implies that this
industry is important for the economies of the European Union. But the air
transport industry is growing faster than we are currently producing and
introducing technological and operational advances which reduce the
environmental impact at source. The overall environmental impact is bound
to increase since the gap between the rate of growth and the rate of
environmental improvement appears to widen in important fields such as
emissions of greenhouse gases. This trend is unsustainable and must be
reversed because of its impact on climate and the quality of life and
health of European citizens. The long-term goal, therefore, must be to
achieve improvements to the environmental performance of air transport
operations that outweigh the environmental impact of the growth of this
sector.
ii) Meeting this challenge necessitates, in line with the provisions
of the Amsterdam Treaty, significantly enhanced integration of
environmental requirements into sectoral policies as part of the European
Community's responsibilities for the promotion of sustainable development
and of its responsibilities for securing an efficient functioning of the
internal market.
iii) The present Communication analyses and identifies for the first
time ways for coherent and integrated policy action for the European Union
in the air transport field. To this end reliance on better, preferably
internationally agreed standards and rules needs to be complemented by a
more effective system of EU-wide national, regional and local measures
aimed at accelerating the introduction of environmentally friendly
technologies and operating techniques to reduce noise and gaseous
emissions. It is also important that the European Union improves the
promotion of its interests in the International Civil Aviation
Organisation (ICAO).
iv) This Communication suggests the introduction of economic and
regulatory incentives reinforcing the competitive edge of operators and
users which choose to use state-of-art technologies and environmentally
friendly operations. It is proposed to expose Europe's air transport
system much more to a system of "Reward the best - Punish the worst"
by drawing a clearer line between operations on the basis of their
environmental quality. The air transport industry is invited to make, by
means of establishing voluntary environmental agreements or otherwise, a
pro-active contribution to reducing the environmental impact of its
operations.
v) The Commission intends to continue its work on the creation of
equitable conditions for competition within the overall transport system.
This implies working towards integration of environmental costs into
charging systems and significant improvement of the infrastructure at
intermodal connecting points so that users and operators can actually
orient their choice towards the environmental quality of transport
services and avoidance of congestion. This will contribute to replacing
shorter flights by truly competitive rail transport.
vi) Local rules for implementation at the level of airports are part
of a policy aimed at integrating in a coherent way environmental
requirements into sectoral policies. Therefore, the work programme
outlined in this communication includes measures to be applied at the
level of airports in order to reconcile the need for action on
environmental grounds with the necessity to prevent distortive
proliferation of local rules.
vii) In the longer run, it is important to ensure that the 5th and
6th Research and Development Framework Programmes aim at break-through
achievements in the environmental performance of aircraft and their
engines and the understanding and assessment of the atmospheric effect of
aircraft exhaust gas emissions. In addition to improving the green
credentials of the air transport business, innovation in this field will
have the benefit of safeguarding the competitiveness of the EC's
aeronautical industry.
viii) This Communication constitutes the point of reference for the
Commission's workprogramme during the next five years and beyond. On the
basis of the results in ICAO by the end of 2001 the Commission will
present a re-assessment of the balance between global, Community and local
measures with a view to ensuring fulfilment of the environmental goals
laid down in the Amsterdam Treaty and the Kyoto-Protocol and update
priorities, where required, by lack of progress at international level
and/or new scientific evidence on environmental impacts of air transport.
CONTENTS
I INTRODUCTION: POLICY CHALLENGES, GOALS AND STRATEGIES
II. IMPROVING TECHNICAL STANDARDS AND RELATED RULES
Noise
Gaseous Emissions
Operational Measures
III. STRENGTHENING MARKET INCENTIVES TO IMPROVE ENVIRONMENTAL
PERFORMANCE
Economic Incentives
Encouraging Industry Initiatives
IV. ASSISTING AIRPORTS
A Common Noise Classification Scheme
A Framework for Noise Measurement and Land-use Rules
A Community Framework for Operating Rules
Introducing More Stringent Noise Rules
The Role of Other Modes
V. ADVANCING TECHNOLOGICAL IMPROVEMENT (R&D)
VI CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE MONITORING
VII. ANNEXES
Statistical Annex
Air Transport and Climate Change
I INTRODUCTION: POLICY CHALLENGES, GOALS AND STRATEGIES
1. The air transport industry, as well as related industries such as
the aeronautical industry and tourism, is growing at rates clearly above
the average growth of the economy of the European Union. The International
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) special report on aviation and the global
atmosphere1 states that passenger traffic has grown since 1960 at nearly
9% per year, 2,4 times the average GDP rate. This development is, despite
macroeconomic cycles, expected to continue due to underlying structural
reasons for this above average growth, i.e. trade and air transport
liberalisation, new leisure patterns, high income elasticity of demand and
increasing value of goods to be transported.
2. At the same time, the air transport industry and Europe's citizens
are increasingly facing the problems of success: Manifold environmental
impacts of air transport are growing as well. Globally, it contributes to
the greenhouse effect and to the depletion of the ozone layer, where high
altitude emissions might be a specific problem. At a regional level
aviation contributes to acidification, eutrophication and to the formation
of tropospheric ozone by emissions of air pollutants. At local level, in
the immediate vicinity of airports concerns focus on the potential health
and environmental effects of noise and air pollution from emissions such
as oxides of nitrogen (N0x), volatile organic compounds and particulates.
3. There are worrying signs that growth in air transport has started
to outstrip environmental improvements resulting from continuous
technology improvements and the industry's considerable own efforts: for
example, during the first decade of the jet age (1960-1970) an annual
technology induced fuel efficiency improvement of 6,5% was achieved. This
rate has fallen down to 1,9% during the period 1980- 2000.2 Optimisation
of operating techniques can only in part compensate for the increasing gap
between technology improvement and overall growth. As a result carbon
dioxide (CO2) and other emissions increasing in absolute terms. The IPCC
report on aviation and the global atmosphere estimates that carbon dioxide
(CO2) emission will grow at 3% annually over the period from 1990 to 2015.
4. Similar trends exist in the area of noise emissions. Transition
from Chapter 2 to Chapter 3 classified aircraft3 is largely completed in
the European Community and will be definitely finalised in April 2002.4
Results from random noise surveys carried out in 1986-1991 show that in
particularly densely populated Member states about 15% of the population
is affected by aircraft noise.5 So far, there is no internationally agreed
policy approach on how to carry forward measures aimed at decreasing noise
around airports, both in the long- and in the short-term. Continuous fleet
renewal will not be sufficient to reduce further annoyance by noise for
people living under flight paths to and from airports. As a by-effect of
this, most airport infrastructure projects face heavy opposition and
delays in implementation which imply a trend towards further congestion
and further waste of fuel.
1 See IPCC report 'Aviation and the Global Atmosphere', Cambridge
University Press, 1999, Summary for policy makers: www.ipcc.ch
2 See Statistical Annex
3 Noise certification standards according to Annex 16 of the Chicago
Convention forming the basic law for international aviation
4 See statistical Annex
5 See LEN report no. 9420, 1994
5. A vicious circle endangering the air transport industry's economic
success, the Globe's environment and the quality of life of citizens has
become a real threat. The combination of existing environmental
legislation, local improvements at airport level and the industry's own
efforts obviously do not suffice for reconciling pressing environmental
needs with the development of an industry which is of vital importance for
the competitiveness of the economy and for job creation.
Accordingly, action is required targeting beyond business-as-usual
improvements. Current development trends indicating an increasing gap
between the rate of growth and the rate of environmental improvement must
be reversed by means of an integrated action programme encompassing policy
and industry initiatives. The longterm policy target must be to achieve
improvements to the environmental performance of air transport operations
that outweigh the environmental impact of growth. This is a very ambitious
benchmark, notably in the field of CO2-emissions at least as long as
breakthrough developments on engine technologies do not emerge. It
requires new approaches looking beyond the traditional way of relying
largely on improvements to technical environmental standards.
6. Achieving such ambitious goals necessitates integration of
environmental concerns into sectoral policies. The entry into force of the
Amsterdam Treaty - in which the principle of sustainable development is
firmly enshrined - provides a policy obligation to do so. Air transport
policy must be an important part of the Community strategy towards better
integration of environmental goals which goes in line with both the
Amsterdam Treaty and the Cardiff-process. The present communication
outlines measures and strategies towards sustainable development in the
air transport sector and, with a view to the 1999 Summit in Helsinki,
already incorporates parts of the strategy presented in the Commission
Communication "From Cardiff to Helsinki".6
7. The improvement of technical environmental standards on noise and
gaseous emissions, strengthening of economic and regulatory market
incentives, assisting airports in their environmental endeavours and
advancing long-term technology improvements (R+D) are proposed as main
pillars of a strategy integrating environmental concerns into sectoral
policies. The industry is invited to register under the new Eco-Management
and Audit Scheme (EMAS) and to consider establishment of voluntary
agreements as a key element for meeting the aforementioned challenges.
Decisions to be taken at international level (ICAO) will be of
considerable importance for defining in the course of the implementation
of this action programme the balance between the action parameters.
II IMPROVING TECHNICAL STANDARDS AND RELATED RULES
Noise
8. Certification standards and recommended practices for aircraft
noise were first adopted by the ICAO-Council in 1971 pursuant to the
provisions of Article 37 of the Chicago Convention. These standards and
recommended practices, which were finally adopted as Annex 16 of the
Chicago Convention, have been adapted to technological progress on a
regular basis. However, the latest significant revision of the noise
stringency rules within ICAO dates back to 1977, when the Chapter 3 noise
6 see COM(99) .
standard was introduced. It simply no longer represents state of the art
engine and aircraft design technology.
9. In the past, standards recommended at ICAO-level have also been
used as benchmarks for Community legislation on the introduction of
restrictions on the registration or operation of certain types of aircraft
in the Community.7.This approach has not been sufficient to relieve
environmental pressure on the effective use of airport infrastructure or
to stop a further proliferation of local operational restrictions with
their problematic effects on the cost-effectiveness of operations and on
the internal aviation market
10. It seems therefore questionable whether ICAO standards should in
the future and under all circumstances continue to be used simultaneously
for setting production standards for future types of aircraft, for derived
versions of existing aircraft and for reaching regional environmental
objectives, as has been the case in the past.8. More differentiated
approaches will be required
11. Work on noise certification standards steering future aircraft
design should, however, continue at ICAO level. Such standards are
important for the undistorted and balanced development of both the
aviation and aeronautical industries. In this context, the introduction of
more stringent noise emission standards should be sufficiently ambitious
to provide a framework for future aircraft design. At the same time, it
will be essential for the European Community to insist on establishing,
within the overall ICAO-framework, rules for transition that would
facilitate to phase-out the noisiest categories of Chapter 3 aircraft
within a reasonable time-frame in regions when this is required for
environmental reasons
12. The current work programme of the Committee on Aviation
Environmental Protection (CAEP), as endorsed by the 32nd Assembly of ICAO,
has the potential to meet these ambitious targets. It includes an
assessment of the prospects for further reduction of aircraft noise
levels, including determination of the magnitude of shortand long-term
aircraft noise reduction needs, as well as technically and economically
practical solutions. It also covers an examination of the feasibility of
introducing an aircraft noise certification scheme, which will be better
adapted to modern aircraft and the operational procedures they use as well
as the issue of transitional rules for phase-out of aircraft.
13. In the short-term, in order to alleviate the noise situation at
the most noise-sensitive airports, economic and regulatory incentives
should encourage operators to use state of the art aircraft noise
technology and environmentally friendly techniques which exceeds the
current ICAO Chapter 3 standard. These incentives are further discussed in
Chapters III and IV of this Communication.
7 Council Directive 80/51/EEC (O.J. L18 of 24-01-1980) as amended by
Council Directive 83/206/EEC (O.J. L117 of 04-05-1983) Council Directive
98/629/EEC (O.J. L363 of 13-12-1989) Council Directive 98/14/EEC (O.J. L76
of 23-03-1992) as amended by Council Directive 98/20/EC (O.J. L107 of
07-04-1998)
8 As experience has shown this approach tends to suffer from trying
to meet potentially conflicting objectives and from a lack of capacity to
meet regional particularities.
Action:
a) The endorsement by the 32nd ICAO Assembly of the work programme on
noise implies that the Commission, in close co-ordination with Member
States, should participate actively in the CAEP work programme on the
introduction of a new noise certification standard and transitional rules
for phasing-out the noisiest of the current Chapter 3 aircraft. This
standard should be significantly more stringent than the current Chapter 3
standard. In line with the position taken by the Community and its Member
States at the 32nd ICAO Assembly, the target date for a decision is the
33rd Assembly in 2001.
b) In addition, the European Commission will prepare policy measures
aimed at advancing, on the basis of objective and non-discriminatory
conditions, the introduction of more stringent measures at regional level,
with particular emphasis on noise-sensitive airports (see also Chapter
IV).
c) Should ICAO fail to agree, in 2001, on more stringent noise
certification standards and on transitional rules for phasing-out the
noisiest categories of current Chapter 3 aircraft in line with Community
requirements, the Commission may have to propose European requirements, in
close cooperation with other industrialised regions. Any such proposal
would have to consider the need for an economic hardship clause for
developing countries and take account of the impact on competitiveness.
Gaseous Emissions
New Stringency Standards
14. Aircraft engine emissions have a negative impact on the local and
regional level and on the global atmosphere. Currently, Volume II of Annex
16 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation lays down
international certification standards targeting 4 categories of aircraft
engine emissions: smoke, unburned hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO)
and nitrogen oxides (NOx). In addition, ICAO has been mandated to pursue
the reduction of the impact of the greenhouse effect from aircraft. Today,
the reference conditions for certifying aircraft engines are those of the
landing and take-off cycle (LTO). The debate on the reduction of
greenhouse gas emissions has put into question the relevance of the LTO
cycle for assessing the contribution of air transport to those global
environmental problems, such as climate change and the depletion of the
ozone layer which are caused by aircraft emissions.
15. The current CAEP work programme on aircraft engine emissions is
assessing technological advances in subsonic and supersonic aircraft which
might influence emission levels and fuel consumption and is developing new
recommendations for incorporation into Volume II of Annex 16. The
development of new parameters for the assessment of an aircraft's
emissions to replace the existing LTO parameters and to establish climb
and cruise parameters is a high priority in the CAEP/5 work programme.
This work programme was endorsed by the 32nd ICAO Assembly, which stressed
the importance of taking the Kyoto Protocol on the Reduction of Greenhouse
Gas Emissions fully into account in ICAO's work. The Assembly insisted on
co-operation with the Secretariat of the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) regarding the inclusion of
greenhouse gas emissions from international aviation in national
greenhouse gas inventories. It also requested immediate work in close
co-operation with the UNFCCC Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technical
Advice (SBSTA) on the development of proposals for a suitable methodology
for the allocation of greenhouse gas (notably CO2) from international
aviation.
In order to produce shorter term environmental improvements, economic
and regulatory incentives should encourage aircraft operators to use clean
aircraft engine technology and environmentally-friendly techniques (see
chapter III below).
Action:
The Commission, will participate actively in the CAEP/5 work
programme on gaseous emissions, with a view to reaching an agreement on
new and complementary methodologies and standards by the year 2001. In
this context, the Commission will attach priority to identifying the need
of complementing the recent ICAO-decision on NOx with other measures
targeting regional and local impacts of NOx and other gaseous emissions
with a view to enhancing the environmental effectiveness of the recent
ICAO NOx standard, which is only applicable to new engine design. and
present its conclusions in 2001.
Enhancing the Efficiency of Air Traffic Management (ATM)
16. It has been estimated that 350,000 hours of flight by transport
aircraft are wasted in Europe annually, due to airport and air traffic
management (ATM) delays9 and nonoptimal routings. Accordingly a major
saving in the amount of fuel burned could be made if ways can be found to
improve the efficiency of ATM-systems. Indications are that the potential
for such improvements is of the order of at least two year's growth in the
volume of air transport and its emissions10. The recent IPCC-report on the
global impact of aviation estimates that ATM improvement can reduce
fuelburn by 6% to 12% within the next 20 years.11
16a. Air traffic delays and airspace congestion in Europe steadily
deteriorated in 1998 and 1999. A Resolution of the Transport Council of 19
July 1999 stressed the need for actions to relieve such a situation which
"undermines the efficiency of Community air transport and also causes
great inconvenience to the air travellers and an additional burden on the
environment." In the wake of this Resolution, the Commission is
preparing a Communication on recent and ongoing measures aimed at reducing
air traffic delays and congestion in Europe and identifying new
initiatives to be taken.
17. A new CAEP working group has recently been entrusted with the
task of quantifying the emissions reduction potential of a new
Communication Navigation Surveillance/Air Traffic Management (CNS/ATM)
system. As a short term objective CAEP has been charged to ensure the
development, the dissemination and, to the maximum practical extent, the
actual use of best operating practices to achieve nearterm reductions in
aircraft emissions. Aircraft Ground and in-flight operations, ground
service equipment and auxiliary power units (APU), are all being
considered,
9 ECAC "INSTAR" Study, 1995
10 EUROCONTROL-estimates
11 IPCC Special Report Aviation and the Global Atmosphere
together with possible actions for their broader adoption. The Commission
services and Eurocontrol are actively involved in this CAEP work.
18. Through financial support for navigation systems, air traffic
management and airport projects, via the Trans-European Transport Networks
Programme and other Community sources (such as R&D), concrete
contributions are being made to the implementation of such measures.
Action:
The European Commission will continue to strengthen its support, both
at technical and organisational level, for the work of the ATM community,
and in particular of EUROCONTROL in order to achieve significant
improvements to the efficiency of ATM-systems, thus reducing aircraft
emissions. A Communication on ongoing measures in this field has been
adopted together with this Communication.
Operational Measures
19. Considerable effort is being put into reducing noise and
emissions at source. However, these will not be sufficient to solve the
problems and they have little impact on the global situation in the short
term as they tend to be applicable only to new aircraft, or aircraft
types. It is therefore also necessary to lookat operational measures that
can be applied to in-service aircraft.
20. Current operational procedures require aircraft to follow fixed
straight-line tracks, particularly on the approach, which concentrate
aircraft and the resulting noise over a relatively narrow area but over a
long distance. Modern aircraft fitted with sophisticated Flight Management
Systems (FMS) increasingly have the ability to navigate accurately and to
follow non-linear routes that avoid high population density areas and so
minimise the noise impact. If this capability was used to the full and
linked with ground-based noise monitoring systems and prediction models,
which allow the routes to be regularly modified to take account of
changing weather conditions, some noise problems could be avoided.
21. In the longer-term, the scope for operational measures to
significantly reduce environmental impact is even higher. Given the
appropriate approach aids and enhanced air traffic controller tools,
aircraft will be able to follow different approach procedures (curved,
stepped, segmented, steeper etc) not only to minimise noise footprints,
but also to 'spread' the environmental burden more equitably. On the
approach, about half of the aircraft noise is generated by the airframe,
consequently further benefits could be obtained by operating procedures
which keep the deployment of 'noise generators', flaps, undercarriage etc,
as late as possible in the landing phase, consistent with the required
level of safety.
Action:
The European Commission will, when implementing the transport related
chapters of the 5th R&D Framework Programme, give priority to:
- validating appropriate modelling and prediction tools to enable
optimised noise abatement procedures to be introduced at airports,
together with the required monitoring and enforcement systems;
- developing and validating the longer term operational measures,
associated aircraft and ground-based tools and safety nets that permit a
further reduction in environmental impact.
III. STRENGTHENING MARKET INCENTIVES TO IMPROVE ENVIRONMENTAL
PERFORMANCE
22. Current economic and regulatory incentives to enhance
environmental performance mainly take the form of modulating the level of
airport charges on the basis of environmental criteria12 but may also
include Member States' interventions on environmental grounds in the
distribution of traffic rights, within an airport system and/or intervene
in the exercise of traffic rights, in particular where other modes of
transport can provide a satisfactory level of services. However, the role
of market incentives for improving the environmental performance can still
be strengthened significantly thus complementing effectively international
standards. This would help to create a competitive edge for operators and
users which choose to use state-of-theart technologies and environmentally
friendly operations ("Reward the best - Punish the worst"). In
parallel, the potential role of voluntary agreements with the industry
merits careful examination.
Economic Incentives
23. Minimum technical standards which bind operators and airports are
important for the environmental performance of air transport activities.
However, such minimum standards are of limited effectiveness if the aim is
to promote market-oriented decisions to reduce noise and gaseous
emissions. Such an approach gives operators the flexibility to choose the
measures they will use to reduce emissions on the basis of a series of
economic incentives which are linked to specific environmental problems.
This allows them to establish cost-effective solutions. This is the
rationale behind the principle of charging for the external environmental
costs of transport13 which should also apply in air transport.
24. Environmental goals, however, are not the only reason for seeking
a more balanced treatment of air transport within the overall system of
charges and taxes: as a consequence of decisions taken during the infancy
of international civil aviation, international flights are exempted from
taxes. This exemption raises fundamental questions from the point of view
of equal treatment across sectors, of the internal market, general
transport policy and in relation to the goal to internalise the external
costs of air transport.
Kerosene Taxation
25. With a view to addressing the imbalances which result from the
exemption of international aviation from excise duty, the European
Commission issued a report n November 1996, recommending that excise
duties on mineral oil should be extended to aviation kerosene. It stated
that this should happen as soon as the international legal situation
allows the Community to levy such a tax on all air carriers including
12 The Commission's proposal on common principles for the establishment
of airport charges includes the possibility for modulation on
environmental grounds
13 see White Paper on: "Fair payment for Infrastructure Use",
COM (1998)466 final
those from third countries.14 The Council adopted the report in June
1997 and, in its Resolution of 9 June 1997, requested the Commission to
provide further information on the effects of such taxation.15 To this end
the Commission has commissioned a study on the "Analysis of the
taxation of aircraft fuel."16
26. The main results of this study show the impact of the imposition
of the minimum rate of excise duty for kerosene as established for the
territory of the European Community (245 EURO per 1000 litres). It covers
a number of different scenarios for its application.17 Among these
scenarios, the results for an application on all routes departing from a
Community airport (as proposed by the Commission - Option A) and for an
application on all intra-EC air routes for Community carriers
The table indicates, on the basis of a quantitative analysis for the year 2005, the effects of the imposition of the minimum excise duty level (EURO 245/1000 litres) on traffic volume (measured in revenue ton km RTK), operating resultsfor carriers, employment and environmental effects (tonnes of CO2 emission reduction). In addition, the table contains a rough estimation of potential effects of tax avoidance by taking fuel in "tax-free" countries. The changes expressed in percentage rates refer to a business-as-usual development during the period from 1992 (base year for AERO-model data) to 2005 assuming that the minimum excise duty would be introduced in 1998.
14 see COM(96)549 final
15 European Environment Transport Council, Luxemburg 17-06-1997, item
9(f)
16 Resource Analysis, Delft, 1998
17 In parallel, calculations were also done on the basis of a tax
rate of 185 EURO (as applied in Japan) and 10 EURO per 1000 litres (as
applied in the U.S.)
27. The results show clearly that the environmental effectiveness of
imposing kerosene taxes is significantly higher where all routes departing
from EU airports are taxed. Moreover, the ratio between environmental
effectiveness, on the one hand, and economic and competitive impact on the
European airline industry, on the other hand is, from a European view,
significantly better where all air carriers are taxed, at least as long as
circumvention practices by means of taking fuel in third countries is not
widespread. Finally, in relation to cost-benefit considerations, it is at
least questionable whether a reduction in all transport-related
CO2-emissions of just 0.26% (as calculated for an EU 2005 scenario with
1992 a base year on the basis of applying option B) and of NOx-emissions
by 0.12% would justify considerable pressure on the competitiveness of the
European aviation industry which would have to compete head-on with third
country air carriers enjoying intra-Community traffic rights, as a
side-effect of the cumulative effects of so-called open-sky agreements
concluded by Member States.
28. Consequently, any effective approach would necessitate a system
that allows for taxing/charging all carriers operating out of Community
airports (Option A). Such an approach, however, if applied in the field of
kerosene taxation would require fundamental changes to existing policies
at ICAO-level and, in particular, to existing bilateral Air Service
Agreements (ASAs) that allow for the imposition of taxation only in case
of a reciprocal agreement. These changes will be difficult to achieve
without considerable concessions in other fields. For these reasons, the
Commission considers that the approach suggested in its 1996 report should
be maintained, for the time being, pending progress in international fora.
The alternative (Option B), though legally feasible, is unacceptable in
the Commission's view. It would not strike the delicate balance between
environmental, economic and internal market requirements which is
necessary for a coherent policy in this area. The conclusion reached as to
the relative attractiveness of options A and B also applies to lower tax
levels even though these may reduce the economic burden for Community air
carriers.
Environmental Charges
29. Given the limited prospects for a fundamental change in the
international framework on kerosene taxation at this stage, studies
targeting alternative or complementary approaches have already been
undertaken.18 A priori, there are a number of options available.
30. Environmental charges could take the form of the following
levies:
a) a levy added to the passenger ticket fare;
b) a levy based on the distance flown and aircraft engine
characteristics to be collected via EUROCONTROL with en route charges
differentiated on the basis of the environmental performance of the
aircraft used;
c) a levy associated with airport LTO charges. There are, in
addition, several basic options for the revenues collected:
18 See "A European Environmental Aviation Charge" by Centre for Energy Conservation and Environmental Technology, Delft, 1998 and report "Emission Charges and Taxes in Aviation, The Hague, 1998
a) a revenue-neutral application (i.e. only modulation on the basis
of environmental performance);
b) the funding of general public policies, of different environmental
enhancements (R&D, investments in new technologies etc.) or of
compensatory measures for environmental damage either directly related to
the air transport sector, or not (forestation, house insulation);
c) a combination of a) and b) in the form of a base rate emission
charge targeting the external environmental costs plus a modulation giving
a premium in favour of "clean" and a sanction against "dirty"
operations.
31. Subject to further studies on this issue the Commission believes
that the inclusion of environmental charges into the system of en route
charges seems to be a promising technique. A combination of a base rate
charge and a modulation of the rate of charges on the basis of the
environmental performance of the equipment appears to be the most
appropriate way to reconcile underlying environmental, economic and
transport policy goals. In particular, such an approach would bring about
stronger differentiation between more or less environmentally friendly
operations, thus accelerating the use of better techniques and promoting
equitable conditions for competition between rail and air transport.
32. The preparatory work for establishing a European Charge will be
coordinated with the work taking place in the context of ICAO's CAEP/5
work programme, which is aiming to present conclusions to the 33rd
Assembly in 2001, for a modernised policy framework for environmental
levies including taxes and charges. The Commission is participating
actively in this work. The goal is to reach decisions which meet the
requirements of the European Community in 2001. The Commission, however,
believes that policy action is urgent in any case and that the European
Community may have to act in this field also in case ICAO fails to
modernise existing rules.
Emission Trading
33. The trading of emission rights is a new concept that is largely
untested in the aviation field. A priori, it could be implemented at three
distinct levels:
- at State level as foreseen in the Kyoto-Protocol;
- at the level of companies, both internationally and within national
borders, sectorwise or not;
- between air carriers operating at an individual airport imposing a
quota on (noise) emissions.
34. Trading of emissions between, for example, States listed in Annex
1 of the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) clearly does not
imply a sectorspecific dimension. Developments in this field will take
place in the context of implementing the Kyoto Protocol, therefore the
fulfilment of emission reduction goals by means of trading emission rights
will be a matter to be decided primarily at State level. In practice this
may mean that pressure on the aviation industry by individual countries to
contribute to the fulfilment of their agreed and binding emission
reduction goals may differ. This may give rise to concerns about
distortions of competition in what is a globally organised market.
35. Future possibilities for trading of emission rights between
companies on an international scale will depend on rules to be established
when developing further flexibility provisions for the implementation of
the Kyoto-Protocol. Since progress during the Conference of Parties (CoP)
in Buenos Aires was somewhat slow, a lot will depend on the outcome of the
next such meeting: CoP 6 in 2000 which will assess the outcome of the
action programme agreed in Buenos Aires.
36. In theory, stronger use of emission trading as an instrument for
furthering environmental improvements could also be established at
regional (Community) or at national level. In that case it would be
necessary to set a cap on emissions and to set rules for trading emissions
under such a cap. This approach would imply that growth industries such as
air transport may purchase emission rights from declining industries or
from industries where new technologies already available pave the way
forcost-effective reductions of emissions. This mechanism may contribute
to both the acceleration of structural change and environmental
improvement. However, it is worth noting that from the point-of-view of
the aviation industry the effects of such a system would not necessarily
be significantly different from the imposition of environmental levies. In
both cases, environmental improvement would in essence be brought about by
rendering more expensive emissions from air operations.
37. The trading of emission rights at an individual airport would
imply the establishment of overall emission quotas for the airport
concerned (preferably with the goal of lowering them over time) and of
rules for the trading mechanisms which would have to be compatible with
existing rules for the allocation of slots. The concept is attractive in
terms of its underlying economic rationale. Therefore, the Commission
firmly intends to undertake further studies to look at implementation and
may prepare an initiative to be launched at a later stage.
Carbon Offsets
38. Another approach to improving the global environmental impact of
air transport could be to look for a system which will allow the air
transport industry to offset the environmental impact of industry growth
by investments in carbon sinks (forestation etc.). Unfortunately, there is
at this stage a considerable scientific uncertainty in relation to the
impact of forestation activities on absorption of CO2.19 Therefore, in the
short-term, the priority must be to analyse carefully the research
findings in this field prior to preparing possible policy conclusions.
Action:
1. The European Commission will, in close co-ordination with the
ongoing work on this issue at ICAO-level, continue and accelerate its
preparatory work with a view to possibly introducing proposals to
establish a European Environmental Aviation Charge to be presented in
2001. This work will in particular aim at:
- defining the approach on the level of the charge and its
modulation;
19 see articles in New Scientist of 24-10-1998. Such uncertainties also reduce, at this stage, possibilities to determine the appropriate level of environmental levies on the basis of an accurate knowledge of prevention costs.
- identifying a collection method, in cooperation with EUROCONTROL;
- proposing rules for decisions on the use of proceeds;
- ensuring its compatibility with the international legal framework.
considering options for emission related charges at the level of
airports.
2. Prior to policy conclusions on this work the Commission will
maintain its proposal COM(96)549 on the imposition of kerosene taxation.
3. The Commission will continue its study work on innovative concepts
for economic instruments such as emission trading and carbon offsets with
a view to better identifying their capacity to contribute to solutions to
environmental problems in the aviation field whilst respecting legal
requirements.
Encouraging Industry Initiatives
EnvironmentalManagement Schemes
39. The introduction of an environmental management system enables a
company, such as an airline or an airport, to develop an effective and
co-ordinated response to all the environmental issues that are part of its
day-to-day business. It is an effective means of demonstrating,
environmental concern and responsibility as well as a willingness to
tackle the negative impacts of air transport activities in a structured
and transparent way. By setting objectives and targets for reducing their
impacts and by implementing the appropriate system capable of delivering
real environmental performance improvements.
40. In the Community, Council Regulation 1836/93/EEC has created a
framework for voluntary participation by companies in the industrial
sector in a Community ecomanagement and audit scheme (EMAS). ISO 14001,
the international standard for environmental management systems,
represents an essential step towards improved environmental management.
EMAS, however, is a more ambitious system requiring that the company
reports to the public about its environmental performance. Both the
implementation of the system and the report are subject to external
scrutiny which provides for credibility concerning the environmental
achievements of the company. Organisations having already implemented ISO
14001 can built on it without duplicating their system by adding the
missing elements of EMAS to their ISO 14001 certification.
41. A number of airports in the Community were involved in a pilot
project on the introduction of EMAS. This project aimed at testing the
feasibility to introduce EMAS in the air transport sector. The result was
undoubtedly positive. The revision of the EMAS Regulation will make it
accessible to the air transport sector in the very near future whilst
currently ISO 14001 certification was the only available standard and was
therefore used already by some airports.
Action:
The Commission will facilitate the exchange of experience and the
promotion of the upcoming revised Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)
in the air transport sector.
Environmental Agreements
42. The objectives and practicalities of environmental agreements are
laid down in a Communication20, which was presented in November 1996 by
the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament. Some aviation
stakeholders, in particular the Association of European Airlines (AEA),
have expressed their interest in exploring with the European Commission
the feasibility and scope of a voluntary self-binding commitment on CO2
emissions. Possible inclusion of other emissions impacting on the global
atmosphere may have to be explored.
42a. Entering into a more formal approach on the possibility of
establishing a voluntary agreement with the air transport industry would
necessitate the establishment of environmental targets ensuring a
significant contribution to fulfilling the reduction targets as laid down
in the Kyoto-Protocol which apply, however, to economies as a whole and
not to individual industries. According to estimates of the Association of
European Airlines (AEA) fuel efficiency of the fleet of member airlines
will increase in a business-as-usual scenario by 9,7% during the period
1998-2012 which would, in view of most growth forecasts imply further
increases of CO2 emissions in absolute terms. This would imply a decrease
of progress if compared with the recent 10 years where an annual
improvement in the order of more than 2% was achieved. The Commission
considers doubling the rate of progress if compared with the recent decade
as an appropriate goal to be achieved by the end of an initial period of
10 to 15 years where no technology breakthrough is in sight. Putting
together the various possibilities to increase fuel-efficiency in all
parts of the aviation system, an environmental agreement should aim at
reaching an improvement of 4% to 5% p.a. by the end of the period. With
the availability of new technologies as from 2015 even more ambitious
goals could be envisaged.
43. In order to be fully effective and to fit within the structure of
the aviation industry, an agreement may have to include or cover under
separate agreements the different parties concerned: air carriers,
aircraft engine and airframe manufacturers, fuel suppliers, air traffic
management providers and airports. The agreement should contain quantified
objectives, in absolute or relative terms, going beyond achievements
already brought about by ongoing technology development and fleet renewal
("business as usual"). With a view to providing a tool for
assessing the effectiveness of the agreement, intermediate objectives ("milestones")
as well as an indicative timetable for their achievement should be part of
the agreement. The monitoring mechanisms should give sufficient guarantees
regarding the reliability and accuracy of the agreement and foresee
enforcement provisions in case of nonfulfilment of agreed goals which
should include legislative measures to be taken swiftly such as increase
of environmental charges. Openness about the initial commitments and the
achievement of environmental objectives is crucial to ensuring their
effectiveness.
20 COM(96)561final of 27.11.1996
44. Given the international nature of air transport and the
aeronautical industry an important question is whether voluntary
agreements on limiting CO2- and other emissions from aviation activities
should include Third country operators and manufacturers. This aspect is
especially important for the manufacturing industry which has a strong
homebase in North America. This will have to be examined as well as the
more general issue of avoiding "free riders" who exploit the
benefits of such agreements without making a contribution to achieving
agreed goals. In this context, the role ICAO might play in establishing a
world-wide agreement merits careful attention.
Action: The Commission will further investigate the appropriateness
and possible benefits of reaching voluntary agreements on CO2 and other
emissions based on clearly defined targets, whilst ensuring that such
agreements go well beyond what would be achieved in a
business-as-usual-scenario. In the light of the outcome of this work the
Commission will decide on a framework for entering into formal
negotiations on a voluntary agreement on the basis of clearly established
targets including time-table
IV. ASSISTING AIRPORTS The citizens living in the vicinity of
airports are very directly exposed to the environmental impact of air
transport. However, it is also true that the variety of situations at
Community airports in terms of traffic volume and number of aircraft
movements, nightflights, proximity to residential areas, land-use rules in
place and environmental sensitivity of the population concerned make it
difficult to target environmental problems predominantly with uniform
rules applying across the board. Obviously, there is a need to strike a
consistent balance between uniform "bottom line" rules and
possibilities to take action at local level within an agreed framework
safeguarding the internal market.
A Common Noise Classification Scheme
45. Noise-related charges are levied at several European airports as
an incentive to use quieter aircraft and to finance noise insulation
programs. The noise charges can take the form of an extra landing charge
or a specific noise charge or tax. The noise charges are presently based
on aircraft noise classifications fixed according to principles which vary
from one country to another. Classification of aircraft is also used as a
basis for operational restrictions based on different local noise schemes,
such as night bans.
46. Most existing classifications are based on the noise
certification values. With the completion of the Chapter 2 aircraft
phase-out, existing aircraft noise classifications will have to be
updated. That will be an appropriate time to adopt a common scheme for
noise classification of aircraft within Chapter 3 in order to prevent
further proliferation of different local schemes. Such a classification
scheme is also necessary for several aspects of the general EU noise
policy as well as for any local noise reduction measures and charging
schemes which prove necessary. A common noise classification scheme would
also make it simpler for air carriers to plan operations, since it will
establish a fair and transparent system applicable throughout Europe.
47. The basic idea behind the classification is that it should
reflect the contribution to the noise exposure of people living near
airports . The classification could be based on one of two different
principles:
- certification values;
- input data for the computation of noise exposure due to air
traffic;
48. Certification values are used in many countries as a basis for
charging and for operational rules. They are established values based on a
carefully described procedure recommended by ICAO. The purpose of the
certification procedure is to establish a method for comparing the noise
emission of different aircraft with the regulations. Unfortunately, the
procedures are not always representative for normal flights.
49. Computed operational noise data is more closely related to real
noise disturbance on the ground than certification data. Different
conditions, such as the actual power and flap setting, as well as local
conditions in the airport vicinity, can be included. At present, however,
there is no common European methodology or procedure used for aircraft
noise computation and the basic data used for the computation has not been
subject to the same control as the certification data.
50. Noise monitoring is performed at a number of European airports,
mainly as an instrument to control the noise situation, but there are also
some examples of noise databases consisting of measured data. As with the
computed noise data there is, however, so far no common European
methodology or procedure for monitoring. It is important that the
classification reflects the degree of impact on the area surrounding the
airport. On the other hand, the classification has to be founded on
accepted standardised methods and a prescribed technical procedure.
51. The establishment of modelling guidance for airports is the
subject of much international discussion. When a common method for
calculating noise around airports has been achieved, together with a
common database to support it, then this will probably be the best basis
for noise classification. Today only the certification values can be used.
Action:
The Commission will propose in the year 2000 a Community framework on
noise classification of aircraft with a view to establishing an objective
common basis for the computation of noise exposure for local and national
decisions on airport charges, operational restrictions and, subject to the
outcome of further study work for the introduction of environmental
performance criteria, rules to the allocation of slots.
A Framework for Noise Measurement and Land-use Rules
52. In its White Paper on the future development of the Common
transport Policy21, the Commission stressed the need to ensure that areas
surrounding airports are adequately protected against an increase in noise
volume due to the growth in air
21 COM(92)494 final of 2 December 1992.
transport and that no new noise-sensitive activities are allowed near
airports. To that effect measures were announced with a view to
- introducing a standard noise exposure index;
- establishing a standard method of calculation of noise exposure
levels;
- implementing noise monitoring, noise zoning and land-use rules
around airports.
It was further highlighted that such measures would need to give due
consideration to the characteristics of individual airports.
53. Various noise measuring, noise monitoring and land-use measures
already exist at a large number of Community airports. Indices and
methodologies for determining noise exposure due to aircraft operations
however are different in individual Member States22. The Commission sees
great merit in the establishment of a common noise exposure index as well
as a standard methodology for calculation of noise exposure around
airports. Such common standards would make it possible to carry out a
valid comparison between existing noise exposure levels and limits. They
would also provide a general reference framework for assessing the
compatibility of airport capacity provisions with environmental
objectives. Unambiguous methods also facilitate the establishment of
transparent and comparable common targets. In the longer term, a coherent
framework covering all (transport) sources would be envisaged23 as
suggested in the recent green paper on a future noise policy As a
follow-up to the Green Paper on future noise policy the Commission is
preparing measures on the harmonisation of noise indices, computation and
measurement methods for all the traffic noises.
54. Any aircraft noise abatement policy should include aircraft noise
monitoring to provide information to the public on the actual noise
situation around an airport and to assess complaints about aircraft noise.
When combined with flight data from the airport surveillance radar, the
noise monitoring system allows compliance with prescribed standard flight
procedures and tracks to be checked. Such an integrated flight track and
aircraft noise monitoring system makes it possible to detect immediately
violations of standard procedures and to trace offenders against
established noise limits.
55. In addition, the lack of proper land-use planning around airports
has caused an increasingly problematic situation in relation to balancing
the valid interests of different stakeholders. Although the present
location of residential areas in the vicinity of airports cannot be
reversed, it is important to improve the situation for the future
construction and extension of airports. Compatible land use planning is
essential to ensure that the gains achieved by the reduction of noise at
source are not offset by further residential and other non-compatible
developments around airports. The European Spatial Development Perspective
(ESDP) provides a framework for making progress in this field.24
22 A study into existing methodologies for the calculation of noise
exposure levels in and around airports, National Aerospace laboratory, the
Netherlands, 1992
23 COM(96)540 final of 4 November 1996 on Future Noise Policy
24 ESDP, prepared by the Committee on Spatial Development, Potsdam,
1999
56. However, the establishment and enforcement of land-use planning
control is and will remain the responsibility of the local and national
government. In recognition of the subsidiarity principle, the Commission
does not intend to propose a change to the existing allocation of
responsibilities. However, the Commission considers that guidelines for
such controls, based on best practice techniques, could be an appropriate
approach to improving the situation. Also, the use of the same indicators
and assessment methods in these procedures will help the transfer of
knowledge and experience. Furthermore, leverage through the Community's
financial instruments for airport infrastructure development could be used
for stimulating progress in this important field.
Action:
The Commission will propose a common noise measurement index, a
methodology for noise calculation and minimum requirements for noise
monitoring. The Commission will, in close cooperation with Member States,
consider the possibility of establishing recommended practices on land-use
decisions in the vicinity of airports.
The Commission will propose that proper land-use rules should be
considered as an eligibility criterion for financial support to airport
construction and extension projects under the Community's various
financial instruments.
A Community Framework on Operating Rules
57. In the present legal framework the imposition or modification of
operating restrictions to reduce the impact of aircraft noise at Community
airports is the prime responsibility of the relevant national, regional
and local authorities. Community involvement in this field is strictly
limited to ensuring that such decisions comply with Community law and in
particular with the rules of Regulation 2408/92 and general Treaty
principles such as non-discrimination and proportionality and with the
Community's competition rules. The diversity of situations at individual
airports in terms of traffic volume, noise performance of the aircraft
used and, in particular, their closeness to residential areas, have tended
to imply that Community harmonisation initiatives, for example on
nightflights, would be inconsistent with the subsidiarity principle
58. A fair balance of interests is difficult to reach by attempting
to set down uniform and binding rules on operating restrictions for all
Community airports. Decisions must continue to be taken at local level if
the best-balanced solution is to be found for each individual situation.
However, the appropriateness of a Community Framework for decision-making
procedures is a distinct matter. For example, there is no convincing
argument on environmental grounds for objecting to industry's interest in
establishing common points of reference for measuring the noise
performance of the operations which are to be restricted. Similarly,
significant changes to existing rules should incorporate sufficient time
for operators to adapt their operations. It may also be important to
consider establishing the enforceable right of airport neighbours to
request consultations and negotiations on the imposition of new operating
rules and guarantees that noise is actually reduced and not just shifted
to other areas. Finally, the establishment of a body with a balanced
representation of stakeholders to discuss best practices in this field at
Community level could contribute towards avoiding weaker, "lowest
common denominator" standards and in favour of a reasonable degree of
harmonisation without recourse to legislation. Such "best practice
guidance" might over time, develop towards a Code of Conduct on
operating rules.
Action:
The Commission will examine, in close co-operation with stakeholders
concerned and Member States, options for establishing a Community
framework for decision-making procedures in the field of environmental
operating restrictions at Community airports, including a forum for
disseminating best practice.
Introducing More Stringent Rules on Noise at Individual Airports
59. The present international framework for advancing the
introduction of new stringency standards on noise is based on ICAO
Resolution A28-3 on the chapter 2 phase out of 1990. This established an
international understanding on a target date for a non-operation rule. In
the past, this date has also served as benchmarks for Community
legislation governing intra-Community and international flights.
Therefore, any Membrer state decisions to advance the introduction of more
stringent noise requirements rules are currently not in conformity with
Community legislation.25
60. It is foreseeable that discussions and negotiations on future
certification standards for noise ("Chapter 4")will again be
heavily influenced by the closely-related question of appropriate phase-in
dates for non-addition and non-operation rules for Chapter 3 aircraft. The
European request that certification standards as such and regional rules
for their implementation should be strictly separated reflects objective
policy requirements in Europe but has attracted, so far, little support in
international fora (see also chapter II). Therefore, the establishment of
a Community system of identifying particularly noise-sensitive airports,
i.e. airports creating a large number of sleep disturbed and annoyed
citizens, could pave the way for a more balanced and, in an international
context, more acceptable solution to problems at individual Community
airports reducing the number of annoyed people.
61. Such a system would consist of establishing objective and
controllable Community rules under which, at the request of the Member
State concerned, an individual airport might, on the basis of a decision
of the Commission and after examination of the case assisted by an
advisory committee, introduce more stringent noise rules prior to their
general introduction in the Community market place.
62. With a view to safeguarding internal market requirements and
undistorted competition, it is important, however, that entitlement for
introduction of more stringent rules must be based on fulfilment of clear
and objective criteria constituting an exceptional situation and on use of
common benchmarks for the determination of the noise impact on the
environment of the airport. Such benchmarking will be greatly facilitated
by the introduction of common indicators and assessment mehods as
discussed above. Granting a permit to advance the introduction of more
stringent rules could be justified in particular to avoid new operational
restrictions or to pave the way for public approval of airport extensions.
25 see Commission decision of 22 July 1998 on access to Karlstad airport. O.J. L233 of 20-08-1998
62a. An alternative track towards better recognition of the situation
at particularly noise sensitive airports could be to introduce
environmental criteria into the rules on the allocation of slots at
congested airports. The basic idea would be to give some preference to
operations with more silent aircraft when defining priority criteria for
re-allocation from the pool and to make sure, in any case, that air
carriers cannot substitute less acceptable aircraft for existing
equipment.
62b. The potential attractiveness of introducing criteria on the
environmental performance of aircraft into the system of re-allocating
slots not only stems from the prospects for environmental improvement: If
combined with a system of overall noise quotas at individual airports, the
incentive to use more silent aircraft in order to obtain slots would also
improve the overall capacity of airports instead of accepting the current
tendency to "solve" environmental problems by means of capping
the overall number of movements.
62c. However, some of the implications of such a modification of the
existing regulatory systems require further examination in order not to
disturb the balance between the interests of incumbent air carriers and
those of new entrant operators. Such a step necessitates definition of
common reference criteria (a common noise classification scheme) in order
to be compatible with essential internal market requirements.
Action:
The Commission will examine the feasibility and possible scope for a
Community system for identifying particularly noise sensitive airports
with a view to addressing the need for the introduction of more stringent
rules at these specific airports. Its proposals in this respect will take
into account the outcome of the CAEP/5 work on future noise stringency
measures.
The Role of other Modes
63. From an environmental perspective, other modes are relevant for
air transport in two ways. First, for many short to medium distance
flights rail, in particular high-speed rail, can offer a realistic
alternative. Second, air transport generates other traffic to and from
airports, which highlights the role of airports as intermodal terminals.
64. The interconnection of different modes of transport is being
pursued in the context of the trans-European transport networks (TEN-T).
The Commission is currently working towards a revision of the TEN-T
Guidelines, in which the linkage of airports to other modes of transport -
notably rail - will receive particular attention in order to create the
conditions for efficient connections.
65. Provided that infrastructural preconditions do exist there is a
significant potential for enhancing rail/air intermodality, thus easing
pressure on ATM-systems and facilitating the situation at congested
airports. This would free air transport infrastructure capacity for
(longer) flights where competitive alternative transport modes do not
exist.
66. Most air trips are automatically multimodal because of the
necessity to travel to and from the airport. The local and regional
traffic thus generated is in itself a major source of air pollution, noise
and congestion. But efficient public transport between airports and city
centres is not only a requirement on environmental grounds, it also lowers
the risk of delay through congestion and reduces parking requirements.
This constitutes an obvious "win-win" situation. In its
Communication on the Citizen's network26, the Commission highlighted the
necessity of linking the TEN-T to local networks, and in particular
connecting airports to rail infrastructure. In this context it must be
ensured that rules on public procurement do not hinder local and regional
authorities from using above-standard equipment, e.g. clean buses, for
such connections. The Commission is working to disseminate best practice
in local transport solutions27
Action:
The Commission will press for more effective air/rail connections in
the future development of the TEN-T and continue to accelerate its efforts
to make rail transport more competitive and better integrated facilitating
replacement of shorter flights by rail transport. In order to enable
transport authorities to develop environmentally advanced public transport
systems around airports, the Commission will work towards public
procurement rules that allow and encourage procurement officers to
purchase environmentally advanced equipment. Existing activities to
disseminate best practice in local transport solutions will be
strengthened.
V. ADVANCING TECHNOLOGICAL IMPROVEMENTS (R&D)
67. The need for a long-term Research and Development (R&D)
strategy is underlined by the fact that the aeroplanes produced today are
in general based on established technologies, the development of which
started some 10 or 15 years before. Improvements in environmental
performance such as emissions and noise are an integral part of the
systems development for new aircraft which demonstrates the need for an
integrated R&D approach.28 The European Community has developed its
aeronautical research programme in close consultation with industry,
research organisations and regulatory authorities taking into account
related Community policies.
68. The Community will continue to support research on the
atmospheric effects of aircraft emissions (see part 2 of the Annex to this
communication). This will be part of the Key Action on Global Change,
Climate and Biodiversity under Thematic Programme 4 on Energy, Environment
and Sustainable Development. The overall objective of the Key Action is to
develop the scientific, technological and socioeconomic basis and tools
necessary for the study and understanding of changes in the environment
such as climate change, stratospheric ozone depletion, etc. In particular,
the quantification and the relative importance of aircraft emissions to
other anthropogenic and natural emissions and their impacts on the ozone
layer and climate will be studied.
26 COM(98) 431 final of 10 July 1998
27 For example by means of databases on the World Wide Web such as
ELTIS (http://www.eltis.org) and its planned extensions.
28 European efforts on the atmospheric impact of aircraft emissions
have predominantly been supported by the Environment and Climate Research
Programme (E&C) as well as by the national programmes of the EC Member
States. Complementary R&D activities on both aircraft and engine
technologies for reducing exhaust gas emissions and noise have been
supported by the Industrial and Materials Technologies Research Programme
(Area 3A: Aeronautics). Community funded research on emissions have been
part of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th Framework Programmes while major research on
external noise from aircraft started more recently in the 4th Framework
Programme.
69. R&D on both aircraft and engine aspects related to exhaust
gas and noise emissions will be part of the Key Action 4 on New
Perspectives in Aeronautics of the Competitive and Sustainable Growth
(GROWTH) programme under FP5.The Key Action Aeronautics distinguishes two
strands of work. The development of critical technologies with a medium
and long term perspective (10 to 15 years) will lead research to improve
the enabling technology base. Technology platforms with a shorter term
perspective (5 to 10 years) are designed to integrate and validate
technology developments. The overall objectives of both strands are:
- to increase fuel economy of both the airframe itself and the
propulsion system by 20% in 10 years, consequently reducing emissions of
the greenhouse gases CO2 and H2O;
- to develop and validate ultra low emission combustor concepts to
achieve significant reductions of pollutant emissions such as nitrogen
oxides (NOx) and particulates in the LTO cycle compared to the current
ICAO 96 standard, and in climb/cruise phase to a NOx emission index of
less than 8 g per kg fuel burned;
- to reduce external noise by 10 dB in 10 years in relation to
present best available technology.
70. R&D under critical technologies will include, in the field of
reducing emissions from air transport:
- the development of technologies for improved aerodynamics, research
on structures and materials to reduce weight, development of new and
improved engine designs with improved efficiency and in addition research
on advanced onboard systems and equipment contributing to improve the ATM
system;
- to develop new combustor concepts for achieving substantial
reductions in NOx and improve the knowledge of the nature and effects of
emissions. This will include technologies for efficient and stable
combustion systems, on-board measurement techniques, modelling of the
composition of engine exhaust gas emissions and development of a new
emission parameter for aircraft/engine certification as recommended by
ICAO/CAEP4;
- the reduction of external noise through reduction of noise at
source generated by engines, propellers and the airframe itself. This will
include the development of active noise and vibration control technologies
and the development of prediction models for airframe and engine for field
noise radiation including work on improved noise certification parameters
and procedures.
71. The overall goal of the technology platform on the more efficient
and environmentally friendly aero-engine is to improve the competitiveness
of the European aero-engine manufacturing industry and at the same time
actively contribute to curbing man-made climate change related to
aviation. The activity includes tests of the best available component
technologies in a conventional performance cycle engine and validation of
an advanced engine performance cycle using an inter-cooled and recuperated
engine core.
72. The technology platform on low external noise aircraft is
developed on the background that research in the last two decades has
focused on the aero-engine as the dominant noise source, resulting in
substantial decrease of noise levels. However further progress can only be
achieved by the combination of developments of several different elements:
engine source noise, nacelle technology, airframe-generated noise and
installation effects as well as low noise flight operational procedures.
The objective of this activity is better integration of these different
elements to achieve and to demonstrate a substantial reduction of
perceived noise.
Action:
In executing the 5th R&D Framework Programme, the European
Commission, in line with established procedure rules, is attaching
priority to :
- explore the scientific, technological and socio-economic basis and
to develop tools for quantifying any change in the atmospheric environment
which may be caused by air transport
- assist the aeronautical industry to develop major improvements to
the environmental performance of aero-engines and aircraft.
The Commission services intend to establish a common European
position within the ICAO/CAEP process and enhance international
co-operation in environmental research.
CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE MONITORING
The action programme as outlined in this Communication represents the
position of the European Commission in relation to strategies to achieve
sustainable development as required by the Amsterdam Treaty by means of
integrating environmental concerns into sectoral policies in the air
transport field. The European Commission is looking forward to early
reaction in support and advice on priorities from the other
EU-institutions when implementing this programme. With a view to the
importance of decisions to be taken at the level of the International
Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) by the end of 2001 for safeguarding
EUgoals the Commission believes that ways for more effective
representation of EU-interests will have to be identified. In any case the
European Commission intends to re-assess the implications of such
decisions for the balance between the main areas for action. A report
serving this goal will be presented early 2002.
A review on the implementation of this action programme may also be
required by new scientific evidence and by the availability of further
developed environmental indicators. The impact of air transport on the
environment will be monitored regularly on the basis of the Transport and
Environment Reporting Mechanism (TERM).29 TERM is a set of indicators
which has been developed in pursuit of a Transport Council Conclusion to
measure the integration process in the transport sector as well as to
monitor deficits and achievements in the implementation of sustainability
of transport. The Commission will co-operate with Member States in order
to encourage the collection of missing data to improve the TERM as a
monitoring system for measuring environmental impacts of air transport.
The Commission will also continue its work on improving the meaningfulness
of cross-modal comparisons of environmental impacts.
29 Transport and Environment Reporting Mechanism (TERM); TERM-Zero Report to be published in the beginning of 2000
Annex 2
2. Air Transport and Climate Change
-The problem
Air transport contributes through the emission of gases and particles
from aircraft engines to changes in air quality at the Earth's surface, in
climate, and in the stratospheric ozone loss, thus affecting the UV-B
radiation at the surface. The question of how significant emissions and
their effects are, is, naturally of particular importance for future
policy priorities.
The present fleet of subsonic aircraft consumes about 130 to 160 Tg
(i.e. millions of tons) of fuel per year and emits carbon dioxide (CO2),
water vapour (H2 O), nitrogen oxides
(NOX), particles (mainly soot), sulphur oxides, carbon monoxide,
various hydrocarbons
(HC), and radicals such as OH. Though the absolute amounts of the
emissions are small compared to other anthropogenic global emissions (2-3%
for CO2 and NOX), these emissions occur in the critical altitude region
below and above the tropopause, between 9 km and 14 km altitude, and are
concentrated mainly in the latitude regions between 40°N and 60°N.
Furthermore, global air traffic is increasing rapidly, at rates
outperforming the impact of technology improvements reducing engine
emissions.
- European research (current activities)
Research related to the atmospheric effects of aircraft emissions and
their mitigation through aircraft/engine technological and operational
measures is of increasing importance within the Framework Research
Programmes of the European Commission. From a few singular activities at
the beginning of this decade this has developed into a specific target
area.
The European R&TD efforts concerning the atmospheric impacts of
aircraft emissions are predominantly supported by the Environment and
Climate Research Programme (E&C) of the European Community (EC) as
well as by national programmes of the Member States of the European Union
e.g. Germany, France, the Netherlands, UK, etc. The complementary R&TD
activities on both aircraft and engine technologies for reducing the
exhaust gas emissions are supported by the EC Industrial and Material
Technologies Research Programmes (Area 3: Aeronautics).
The European efforts have been concentrated since 1990 on the effects
of subsonic transport. For the first time, an integrated study aiming
towards a better understanding of the atmospheric effects of emission of
subsonic aircraft, the AERONOX project, was supported under the
Environment Research Programme. After the initiation of AERONOX, further
research activities have been supported by the European Community such as
the POLINAT, STREAM, MOZAIC, AEROCHEM and AEROCONTRAIL projects.
- The European Assessment30
30 Published in Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 32, n° 13, July 1998
This report concluded that aircraft emissions are small in comparison to
all other manmade emissions, but could be significantly affecting
atmospheric ozone and cloud coverage with possible implications for
climate change in the future having regard to the predicted growth of air
traffic. More specifically:
a) The 20-50% increase in the NOx abundance caused by aircraft
traffic in the vicinity of their cruising altitude (10-12 km) has produced
a 4-8% increase in the ozone concentration of the upper troposphere
(maximum value during summertime) where ozone is a strong greenhouse gas.
The warming effect associated with this ozone increase is comparable to
the warming effect of CO2 emitted by aircraft (about 2-3% of all
anthropogenic CO2 emissions).
b) Climate pertubations could also result from the formation of
persistent contrails and high-level cirrus clouds produced in the busiest
flight corridors. Additional effects on the radiative balance of the
atmosphere could have been generated by the soot and sulphur particles
released by aircraft engines. The warming effect of the changes in
cloudiness is more difficult to assess but appears to be also of the same
magnitude as the warming effect of CO2 emitted by aircraft.
c) The total climate impact caused by the present fleet of commercial
aircraft (about 0.1 Wm-²) is a small contribution to the total
forcing (2.4 Wm-²) associated with industrial development. However,
with air traffic in the next 20 years expected to grow faster than the
global economy, the relative contribution of aviation to environmental
changes (pollution, stratospheric ozone, climate) will become more
significant, unless new, lesspolluting engines and significantly more
fuel-efficient aircraft technologies are introduced.
European research also identified a number of areas where improved
knowledge could advance understanding of how aircraft perturb the
atmosphere. It stresses that the impact of emissions at cruising
altitudes, straddling the tropospheric and stratospheric boundary at
around 12km, is not yet sufficiently understood. A better understanding of
the background ('natural') state of this region is required prior to being
able to identify the impact arising from aircraft emissions with accuracy.
For instance, the natural production of NOx from lightning needs to be
better quantified before the impact of aircraft-induced NOx can be
determined with confidence. In addition, the effect of aircraft emissions
on the abundance of particles that provide the surface for complex
heterogeneous reactions, needs to be carefully studied. The considerable
large uncertainty and the large potential for climatic impact due to
possible changes in cloudiness induced by aircraft emissions, requires
more R&TD emphasis on this topic in future. Finally, the relative
importance of aircraft emissions may evolve in the course of future
changes e.g. in tropospheric and stratospheric temperature, in water
vapour concentration and in the residence time of other greenhouse gases
like methane.
IPCC special report "Aviation and the Global Atmosphere"
Because of the potential policy importance and the need of the
industry for better information on medium- and long-term implications and
the underlying complexity of the global atmospheric phenomena involved, it
was considered appropriate that an international understanding of the
status of both scientific understanding and technological/economic options
associated with these issues should be reached. A coordinated assessment
involving the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as leading
body, the Ozone Science Panel of the Montreal Protocol under the auspices
of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO), and the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) was launched and finalised early 1999.
The report considers the current (year 1992) and possible future
(year 2050 on the basis of different scenarios) effects of aircraft engine
emissions on the atmosphere. CO2, which represents 2% of total emissions
in 1992, could represent 3%in 2050. In absolute terms for the range of
scenarios, the range of increase in emissions would be 1.6 to 10 times the
value of 1992 in 2050. NOx increased O3 (ozone) by 6% in 1992 and could
increase it by 13% in 2050. Even though NOx is expected to decrease the
concentration of CH4 (methane), the net regional radiative effects of O3
and CH4 do not cancel, because the geographical distribution of the
radiative forcing (a measure of the importance of the potential climate
change mechanism) is different: changes in O3 are mainly located near the
flight routes in the Northern Hemisphere, while those of CH4 are globally
mixed. This implies that NOx emissions from aircraft continue to be a
problem in the upper troposphere. The effect of water vapour, a greenhouse
gas, from aviation is smaller than those of other aircraft emissions such
as CO2 and Nox. Aircraft contrails, which contribute to the warming of the
Earth are expected to increase by a factor of 5 between 1992 and 2050.
Over the period 1992 to 2050 the overall radiative forcing by aircraft can
be a factor 2 to 4 larger than the forcing by aircraft CO2 alone.
The report further explores the potential options for emissions
mitigation through changes in technology, the air transport system and in
regulatory and economic frameworks. The report assumes a 20% "natural"
improvement in fuel efficiency by 2015 and a 40 to 50% improvement by 2050
compared to today's technology. Improvements in ATM could reduce fuel burn
by 6 to 12% in the next 20 years. Other operational measures could bring
about a further 2 to 6% reduction. The assumption that there would be no
shortage of airport capacity in the time-horizon of the report was
seriously questioned. The report also recognises that although the
improvements in aircraft and engine technology and in the efficiency of
the air traffic system will bring environmental benefits, these will not
fully offset the effects of increased growth of air transport. Regulatory
and market based options are identified as other mitigation measures.
The key areas of scientific uncertainty, which are identified in the
report, include i.a. the role of NOx in changing O3 and CH4
concentrations, the climate response to regional forcing.
Although the IPCC special report on "Aviation and the Global
Atmosphere", in line with established IPCC practice, does not make
policy recommendations or suggest policy preferences, it has become a key
reference point for future policy decisions aimed at reducing gaseous
emissions from aviation that can affect the chemical properties of the
atmosphere.